Individual Learner Differences In Second Language Acquisition Education Essay

1. Introduction

The fact that competence degrees attained by 2nd linguistic communication scholars fluctuate so greatly ( Lightbown and Spada, 2006: 53 ) , raises an challenging inquiry with respects to 2nd linguistic communication acquisition ( SLA ) , why are some persons better at geting linguistic communication than others? A major ground for this fluctuation in L2 proficiency degrees is normally attributed to single scholar differences ( ILDs ) , ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2005: 2 ) .

This essay sets out to explicate the of import function that ILDs play in SLA, through an in-depth treatment on the part made by L2 motive. Three influential theories offering different positions on L2 motive: the Socio-educational theoretical account, self-government theory and the Process theoretical account will be discussed in item. I will besides look at the theoretical displacements presently taking topographic point in L2 motive research, before reasoning with a treatment on the schemes that instructors can utilize to instil and nurture motive in their pupils.

2. Role of ILDs in SLA

Individual differences are alone larning features which are present in all scholars to changing grades. They can assist to separate acquisition demands and place the extent to which scholars will win in geting a 2nd linguistic communication ( Lightbown and Spada, 2006 ) . These differences are societal, cognitive and affectional in nature, and include aptitude, motive, age, personality, larning schemes, larning manners and anxiousness ( for detailed reappraisals, see for illustration, Naiman et al 1995 ; Skehan 1989 ; D & A ; ouml ; rnyei 2005 ) .

Their relevancy to linguistic communication accomplishment has made ILDs, a focal point of considerable attending in SLA research ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2005 ) . Developments in research, particularly in relation to aptitude and motive, has seen a displacement from a product-orientated attack to a more process-orientated stance ( ibid: 6 ) . Recent surveies have highlighted the importance of the temporal nature and situational context of scholar features ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2009 ) . Current statements nevertheless, have suggested that instead than being massive variables, ILDs are complex properties dwelling of a combination of sub-components and sub-processes ( ibid ) . All ILDs are implicated in linguistic communication acquisition, nevertheless they do non work in isolation and some even have elements in common ( Gardner, 2008 ) .

A expression at some of the influential theories which have emerged from research on L2 motive over the last 50 old ages will assist to explicate the complex function that ILDs can play in the linguistic communication larning procedure.

3. L2 Motivation

Motivation is a scholars ' orientation towards larning ends ( Gardner, 1985 ) , and is regarded by many as the most influential ILD in the linguistic communication larning procedure ( Ellis, 1985 ) . Therefore its relevancy to the schoolroom environment becomes apparent, and to cognize what drives this motive is of great pedagogic involvement.

Many of the scholar features involved in the SLA procedure are dependent on, and in some instances wholly overridden by motive ( Gardner, 2006 ) . A scholar with a natural aptitude for larning linguistic communications, for illustration, may happen it hard to achieve long-run linguistic communication ends without the necessary motive ( ibid ) . On the other manus, high degrees of motive may take to successful acquisition, even where small aptitude exists for linguistic communication ( ibid ) .

Theories looking to explicate the function of motive in linguistic communication acquisition have evolved through four chief phases. D & A ; ouml ; rnyei ( 2005 ) categorises these as: the Social Psychological period ( 1959-1990 ) ; the Cognitive-Situated period ( 1990 's ) ; the Process-orientated phase ( late 1990 's ) ; and eventually a period ( last decennary ) consisting of new attacks that have focused on a scholars sense of self-identity. Table 1 summarises the chief L2 motive theories and constructs.

3.1. The Social Psychological attack to L2 motive

Interest in L2 motive was initiated by societal psychologists Wallace Lambert, Robert Gardner and associates every bit early as 1959, looking to understand the linguistic communication and cultural

Approach to motive

Examples

Social-psychological

Socio-educational theoretical account, ( Gardner, 1985 ) .

Cardinal constructs: Integrative motive, Integrativeness, integrative orientation.

Theory of Linguistic assurance, ( Clement, 1986 ) .

Cardinal constructs: Self-confidence - a self-belief of holding the ability to pull off the acquisition procedure.

Cognitive - Situated

Self-determination theory, ( Brown, 1994 ; Noels et al. , 2000 ) .

Cardinal constructs: intrinsic/extrinsic motive, amotivation.

Attribution theory, ( Weiner, 1992 ) .

Cardinal constructs: imputing past success or failure to current actions.

Goal puting theory, ( Oxford and Shearin, 1994 ) .

Cardinal constructs: Cognitive perceptual experience of ends as a motivation factor.

Goal orientation theory, ( Ames, 1992 ) .

Cardinal constructs: Goal command andperformance orientations.

Motivation and scholar scheme usage, ( Oxford and Nyikos ; 1989, Macintyre et al. , 1996 ) .

Cardinal constructs: Motivation as a cardinal factor in exciting scheme usage.

Task Motivation, ( Julkunen, 2001 ; Dornyei, 2003 ) .

Cardinal constructs: undertaking executing, assessment, action control.

Assorted attack

I. Willingness to pass on, ( Macintyre et al. , 1998, 2003 ) .

Cardinal constructs: Willingness to pass on as a cardinal factor for accomplishing communicative competence.

Process-orientated

Process theoretical account, ( Dornyei and Otto, 1998 ; Dornyei, 2001b ) .

Cardinal constructs: temporal nature of motive, which includes a preactional/actional/postactional phase.

Current and future

L2 motivational ego system, ( Dornyei, 2005 ) .

Cardinal constructs: ideal L2 ego, ought-to L2 ego.

Complex dynamic systems, ( Larsen-Freeman, 2007 ) .

Cardinal constructs: incorporating different theoretical positions. Struggles between English and Gallic speech production communities in Canada. Their research adopted a socio-psychological attack, based on the cardinal thought that a scholar 's success in geting a 2nd linguistic communication is dictated by an attitude towards the mark linguistic communication community ( Gardner, 1985 ) . Their research on pupils larning Gallic showed that aptitude and motive are closely associated with accomplishment in linguistic communication acquisition ( ibid ) . They concluded that motive is characterised by an person 's willingness to be like members of the mark community ( ibid ) .

A theoretical account based on a socio-psychological attack that has been really influential in L2 motive research is Gardner 's socio-educational theoretical account ( see for illustration, Gardner and Lambert, 1972 ; Gardner, 1985 ; Gardner and MacIntyre, 1991 ) . The most recent version of this theoretical account is shown in figure 1.

Language Achievements

Other Support

The most luxuriant and researched facet of Gardner 's theoretical account is 'integrative motive ' , which he defines as the motive to larn a L2 because of a positive attitude towards, and a desire to incorporate with that community ( Gardner, 2001b ) . The three variables that constitute integrative motive are ( ibid ) :

• Integrativeness - this represents a desire to larn a 2nd linguistic communication to place with the mark community, and is reflected in a scholar 's behavior through the followers:
• An integrative orientation, stand foring the ground for acquisition, which in this instance is an involvement in larning an L2 to interact with the mark community.
• A positive attitude towards the mark linguistic communication group.
• An involvement in foreign linguistic communications or a general openness to all linguistic communication groups.
• Attitudes towards the acquisition state of affairs ( ATLS ) - this refers to attitudes towards the linguistic communication instructor, the class in general, the class stuffs and other factors related to the larning context.

Motivation - this is a scholar 's end driven behaviour. A motivated scholar: makes a conjunct attempt to larn a linguistic communication, for illustration by making excess work and seeking more learning chances, displays a strong desire to larn a linguistic communication and is focused on accomplishing the end, enjoys acquisition and has an overall positive attitude towards the acquisition procedure.

An integratively motivated scholar is hence: motivated to larn a 2nd linguistic communication, lament to interact and be associated with the mark community, and has a positive mentality on the learning state of affairs. To prolong consistent degrees of motive, integrativeness and/or a positive ATLS are indispensable features, nevertheless, it is the motive component of the 'Integrative Motivation ' composite that is the active variable and which straight influences 'Language Achievement ' ( Gardner, 2001b: 6 ) . Therefore, a scholar who has a high degree of integrativeness and/or a positive attitude towards larning, but is low in motive is improbable to accomplish high degrees of proficiency.

The affect of instrumental factors on L2 motive was non included in Gardner 's nucleus theory, but he suggests that they could be one of the 'other supports ' impacting motive ( Gardner, 2001a: 7 ) . Based on this, it is possible to replace integrativeness with instrumentality in the representation of the theoretical account in figure 1, to give what Gardner calls 'Instrumental Motivation ' ( ibid ) . This is a motive to larn a L2 for instrumental additions, such as better employment or instruction. An instrumentally motivated scholar has specific communicative demands, which provide a intent for larning and an drift for successful linguistic communication acquisition ( Gardner and Lambert, 1972 ) .

Gardner 's theoretical account makes small mention to other properties, for illustration, personal aspirations and past experiences, which could impact an integratively motivated scholar. However, empirical research in different contexts is continuously conveying to illume the possibility of including more factors in the general L2 motivational concept. To look into Gardner 's theoretical account for adaptability, Tremblay and Gardner ( 1995 ) integrated other measurings of motive, such as anxiousness and goal-setting schemes. Empirical testing of the drawn-out theoretical account showed that add-on of the excess variables did non impact the construction of the original theoretical account ( ibid ) .

Research on motive in different context has led some applied linguists to propose the impression of the linguistic communication community associated with integrative motive is indefensible for international scholars of English ( Ushioda and D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2009 ) . In a multi-lingual society like China, for illustration, few chances exist for interacting with native English communities. In such a context, instrumental motive or external factors ( for illustration, tests and employment ) are more prevailing among scholars than a desire for incorporating with native talkers of English ( Warden and Lin, 2008 ) .

For this ground, other research workers have suggested that the integrative concept should at least be re-examined by including the planetary L2 larning context and the multi-dimensionality of a scholar 's individuality. D & A ; ouml ; rnyei and Csizer, ( 2002 ) suggested that instead than placing with an external linguistic communication community, the integrative construct could be more accurately linked to a scholar 's internal procedure of designation with a self-concept. D & A ; ouml ; rnyei 's ( 2005 ) motivational self-system which developed from this thought is discussed in subdivision 3.4.

3.2. Self-government Theory and SLA

Influenced by progresss in motivational psychological science, and a demand to understand the classroom-situated nature of motive, L2 research moved on from a socio-psychological attack, to look at affects of classroom-situated factors on motive.

1. Self-government theory ( SDT ) is a extremely influential attack in motivational psychological science, and several surveies have attempted to integrate some of its constituents to explicate L2 motive ( for illustration, Brown, 1994 ; Noels et al. , 2000 ) .
2. Harmonizing to this theory there are three types of scholar motives: intrinsic motive, extrinsic motive, and amotivation ( Deci and Ryan, 2002 ) . These motives form a continuum depending on the grade of scholar self-government, where self-government is as an person 's sense of pick and control over the learning procedure ( ibid ) .
3. Intrinsic Motivation ( IM ) refers to an person 's motive to set about an activity, strictly for personal feelings of pleasance and enjoyment associated with that activity, and is driven by a desire for competency and self-government ( Noel et al. , 2000 ) . Intrinsically motivated pupils are considered more likely to accomplish liberty, competency and fulfil long-run linguistic communication ends ( Ramage, 1990 ) .
4. Extrinsic motive ( EM ) , on the other manus, relates to actions carried out for: instrumental additions, in hunt for wages or to avoid penalty ( Noels et al. , 2000 ) . This motive can change in degree depending on the extent to which the activity is controlled by the scholar or other variables ( Deci and Ryan, 2002 ) .

Christmass ( 2001 ) suggests that L2 learner motive can be assessed utilizing the intrinsic and extrinsic concepts. These motives nevertheless, do non needfully hold to be sole, for illustration, a scholar whose behavior is consistent with 'identified ordinance ' may besides exhibit some of the next motives on the continuum ( ibid ) .

Self-government

Type of Motivation

Description

Performing an activity for the pleasance associated with acquisition or researching new cognition. E.g. , when reading a new book.

Intrinsic Motivation to carry through

Performing an activity for the pleasance associated with carry throughing or making something. E.g. , a pupil making more prep than is required.

Intrinsic Motivation to see stimulation

Performing an activity for the stirred esthesiss ( e.g. pleasance and exhilaration ) associated with battle with the activity. E.g. , a pupil who goes to category for the pleasance of take parting in treatments.

Extrinsic Motivation - Identified Regulation

Extrinsic motive is internalised to the extent that learner behavior is regulated by a sense of value and utility of the activity to the ego. E.g. , a pupil who surveies the dark before an test because they think it is of import to them.

Extrinsic Motivation - Introjected Regulation

Learner behavior is regulated by internalization of past external agencies. E.g. , analyzing the dark before an test because it is expected of a good pupil.

Extrinsic Motivation - External Regulation

Learner behavior is regulated wholly by external agencies ( wagess or restraints ) - demoing the least self-determined signifier of extrinsic motive. E.g. , Analyzing the dark before an test because of force per unit area from parents.

Amotivation

A deficiency of extrinsic and intrinsic motive. A scholar feels their behavior is regulated by factors out of their control, and may finally drop out of the acquisition procedure.

Intrinsic motive is characterised by a strong sense of self-government, and is closely associated with integrative motive ( Noels, 2001 ) . This suggests that pupils larning a linguistic communication for pleasance may besides be seeking interaction with the L2 community. Intrinsic motive nevertheless, is identified more with attitudes towards larning, than the mark community ( ibid: 54 ) .

The societal environment ( for illustration, the instructor, household members and the L2 community ) has considerable influence on a pupil 's perceptual experience of self-government. A instructor plays a important function in this respect, and can advance intrinsic motive by promoting learner liberty and supplying positive feedback ( Noels, 2000: 55 ) . Similarly, pupils larning for intrinsic grounds are more sensitive to the instructor 's instructional manner ( ibid ) .

In contrast, the less self-determined external ordinance constituent of extrinsic motive is linked to instrumental behavior ( Noels, 2001: 53 ) . A restriction of extrinsic behavior is that it can hold short-run features. A survey carried out by Ramage ( 1990 ) showed that pupils who learnt a linguistic communication for academic grounds are more likely to stop future linguistic communication categories. Extrinsic class force per unit areas, for illustration, compulsory reading, can besides negatively impact a scholar 's intrinsic involvements ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 1994a ) .

3.3. A Process-orientated attack to motive

D & A ; ouml ; rnyei and Otto 's ( 1998 ) procedure theoretical account of motive integrates assorted theoretical positions of L2 motive, and draws attending to the temporal nature of motive in schoolroom acquisition. The theoretical account is influenced by Heckhausen and Kuhl 's Action control theory, which proposes two consecutive stages of motivational behavior: an person 's motive to organize an attending, and a motive to originate and prolong the intended action ( Heckhausen, 1991 ) .

D & A ; ouml ; rnyei and Otto 's theoretical account interruptions down the motivational procedure into three temporal stages. The first relates to the transmutation of initial desires to ends, and so purposes. The following sees these purposes being enacted, taking to the successful/unsuccessful achievement of ends, and the concluding stage is an overall rating of the acquisition procedure ( see figure 2 ) .

Preactional Phase

Motivational Functions: generate motive to choose a end ; organize an purpose to move ; choose an action program to ordain the purpose.

Possible factors act uponing motive: end belongingss ; attitude towards the acquisition procedure ; attitude towards the mark community ; perceptual experience of self-ability ; societal environmental encouragement or disheartenment.

Actional Phase

Motivational Functions: transport out sub-tasks to keep motive ; ongoing assessment of accomplishment ; action control ( self-regulation to assist persist with larning ) .

Possible factors act uponing motive: quality of the learning experience ; grade of liberty ; teacher, learner group and household influence/support ; schoolroom construction ( competitory or co-operative ) ; cognition and ability to utilize self-motivating, goal-setting and learning schemes.

Postactional Phase

Motivational Functions: property grounds to success or failure ; elaborate internal criterions and action-specific schemes ; disregard original purpose and farther planning.

Possible factors act uponing motive: personal ascription manner ; assurance ; feedback.

An of import averment made by the process-orientated theoretical account is that motivational behavior is influenced by different factors. Consequently, different theories of motive can be associated with each stage ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2003: 18 ) . Integrativeness, for illustration, may be the motivational influence on end scene in the preactional phase. In the executive stage, situated facets of motive drama a greater function, mechanisms of the undertaking processing system are more relevant here ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2003 ) . The retrospective links that scholars make between the original end and existent accomplishment in the post-actional phase are likely to be attributed to past acquisition experiences, a motivational behavior addressed by Weiner ( 1992 ) in the ascription theory.

Two facets that the theoretical account overlooks are: the possibility of several actional procedures running at the same time, or an actional procedure with multiple motivational influences ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2003 ) . This is likely in a school scene, where pupils frequently have multiple ends ( for illustration, societal and academic ) and overlapping motivational influences ( for illustration, undertaking, class or course of study related ) ( ibid ) . The theoretical account assumes that the actional procedures have defined boundaries, nevertheless in an educational context it may be hard to place where one actional procedure starts and the following Begins.

3.4. Present and future: The motivational self-system and a Dynamic systems attack.

Since the socio-psychological period of motive research, the planetary world of English has changed vastly. The rapid globalization of English has challenged the cogency of many SLA theories ( Kachru, 1988 ) , because these theories fail to see the context of the universe Englishes scholar ( Sridhar and Sridhar, 1992 ) .

With limited or no contact opportunities with the native mark community, the impression of a 'self-concept ' ( mentioning to an person 's images and knowledges of the ego ) suggested by D & A ; ouml ; rnyei and Csizer ( 2002 ) , is perchance a more relevant motivational characteristic in many EFL contexts. D & A ; ouml ; rnyei developed this thought farther, in his L2 motivational self-system, which equated integrativeness with an 'ideal L2 ego ' ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2005 ; 2010 ) . The chief constituents of this system are: ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2010 )

'Ideal L2 Self ' - a L2-specific image of the properties that one would wish to possess. For illustration, hopes, desires, aspirations.

'Ought-to L2 Self ' - a self-guide which refers to those properties one thinks one ought to possess to run into outlooks and avoid negative results.

'L2 Learning Experience ' - this refers to the executive motivations ( similar to those identified in the Process theoretical account ) associated with the immediate acquisition environment and experience. For illustration, impact of the instructor, other scholars, the class, the experience of success.

The hypothesis behind the self-system is that a scholars desire to go a individual proficient in the L2, serves as a powerful actuating force to larn a linguistic communication ( Ushioda and D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2009: 3-4 ) . A recent survey in the Nipponese context showed that this desire represented by the ideal L2 ego is tantamount to the construct of integrativeness in Gardner 's socio-educational theoretical account, but the ideal L2 ego is likely more accurate in explicating motivated behavior ( Ryan, 2009 )

D & A ; ouml ; rnyei 's thought of puting the 'self ' at the Centre of the conceptual function of motive offers a new position, nevertheless it overlooks the process-orientated, and contextually dynamic nature of motive. Justifying this complex nature of L2 motive, can merely be possible by incorporating more than one attack ( Macintyre et al. , 2010 ) .

A possibility of uniting different positions of motive is suggested by Ushioda ( 2009 ) with her person-in-context, relational position of emergent motive. She suggests that incorporating relevant theoretical models to back up future analysis of the complex nature of interactive procedures and contextual factors in motivational behavior can assist to supply a better apprehension of how L2 motive is shaped ( ibid ) .

A similar possibility is offered by the theoretical paradigms of dynamic systems theory ( for a elaborate reappraisal, see Larsen-Freeman and Cameron, 2008 ) . This theory involves a survey of systems, where the system is analysed as a whole instead than as its single parts ( ibid ) . Learner fluctuation is seen as the consequence of a complex system of relevant factors working in unison, instead than as a consequence of differences in single determiners ( for illustration, aptitude or motive ) ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2009 ) . As an illustration of an application of a dynamic systems attack to L2 acquisition, D & A ; ouml ; rnyei suggests the possibility of placing an optimum combination of motivational, cognitive and affectional factors with respect to task behavior, that map as an incorporate unit ( for a elaborate reappraisal see, ibid ) .

4. The practical value of theory - motivational schemes for the schoolroom

Chomsky ( 1988 ) emphasises the critical function played by instructors in scholar motive by proposing that 90 nine per cent of learning involves acquiring pupils interested in larning. A linguistic communication instructor 's motivational pattern is besides linked straight to increased degrees of scholar motive ( Guilloteaux and D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2008 ) . Therefore, the demand to utilize appropriate schemes to pull off schoolroom motive is highly relevant to L2 practicians.

Motivational schemes are techniques used by a instructor to pull off learner motive, or used by single scholars to modulate their ain motive degrees ( Guilloteaux and D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2008 ) . Although, several motive schemes have been proposed in L2 literature.

An illustration of an luxuriant, theory-based model which looks at motivational schemes from both a instructor and leaner position is proposed by D & A ; ouml ; rnyei ( 2001a ) . This theoretical account consists of four stages :

Making the basic motivational status, by set uping a good student-teacher relationship, a relaxed acquisition atmosphere and a cohesive scholar group.

Generating initial motive by:

1. Strengthening linguistic communication related values and attitudes ( intrinsic, integrative or instrumental values ) .
2. Increasing the anticipation of success.
3. Increasing goal-orientedness, for illustration, by doing scholars cognizant of the practical ( non-syllabus related ) grounds or value of making an activity.
4. Making learning stuffs relevant.
5. Making realistic scholar beliefs. Many new scholars have inaccurate beliefs about linguistic communication acquisition, a realization of their falsity can hold a demotivating influence.
6. Keeping and protecting motive, to maintain sight of ends, and keep involvement and concentration. The most relevant schemes in this stage include:
7. Making the acquisition procedure stimulating and interesting.
8. Showing undertakings in a motivation mode, doing them exciting and relevant.
9. Puting specific scholar ends.
10. Continuing the scholar 's self-esteem and advancing their assurance.
11. Making scholar liberty.

Promoting self-motivating scholar schemes in order to:

1. Continue the original end committedness, for illustration, by promoting scholars to retrieve favorable outlooks or positive wagess.
2. Maintain concentration, for illustration, by promoting scholars to: place and pull off distractions ; and concentrate on the first stairss to take when get downing an activity.
3. Eliminate ennui and add excess involvement in a undertaking, for illustration, by demoing scholars how to add a turn to a undertaking and utilizing their imaginativeness to do it more stimulating.
4. Manage riotous emotions and bring forth a positive emotional province, for illustration, by acquiring pupils to self-encourage and presenting them to relaxation techniques.
5. Remove negative and utilise positive environmental influences, for illustration, by promoting pupils to take distractions and inquiring for equal aid.
6. Promoting positive retrospective self-evaluation, by:
7. Promoting positive scholar ascriptions ( an thought supported by the Attribution theory, Weiner, 1992 )
8. Supplying motivational feedback, that is enlightening and encouraging. This can assist to increase learner satisfaction and assurance, and encourages constructive self-reflection on failings.
9. Using wagess and classs carefully, as they can deflect the scholar from the existent intent of the undertaking ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2006:730 ) . When they are used, they should be offered in a motivational mode.

The most motivation of instructors are considered to be those who rely on a few simple and carefully selected techniques ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2006: 730-731 ) . Therefore, accomplishing optimum degrees of scholar motive are more likely if motivational schemes are matched by a instructor selectively, to scholars ' specific demands.

5. Decision

This essay discussed the important function that motive, as an illustration of an ILD variable, plays in the long and backbreaking undertaking of 2nd linguistic communication acquisition. I presented three influential theories that have approached L2 motive from different positions, and looked at some of the current tendencies in motivational research. A expression at some possible motivational schemes demonstrated how theoretical constructs can be applied to better the quality of schoolroom acquisition.

The motivational features of the L2 scholar highlight the complex but influential function played by ILDs in SLA. Many of the variables involved in L2 motive have a grade of convergence, and interact both with each other and other ILDs ( Gardner, 2008 ) . In order to understand the true nature of these webs of interactions and their affect on L2 accomplishment, the possibilities offered by a dynamic systems attack is likely the best manner frontward.

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