Waste defined as unwanted matter

Chapter - 1

1.0 Introduction

Waste is defined as unwanted affair or stuff of any type, frequently that which is left after the utile substances or parts have been removed. It can be solid, liquid, semi-solid or contained gaseous stuff ensuing from either human or carnal activities.

Based on the above definition, we can state that since the beginning of life on Earth, world has been bring forthing waste runing from castanetss and other parts of animate beings which they slaughter for their nutrient, to the wood they cut to do their carts. However, with the advancement of civilisation and the promotion of engineering, the waste generated has become more complex in nature and even more varied in footings of its components, doing it more complicated to be controlled and managed decently.

Furthermore, it is deserving observing that, today, most of the states in the universe have witnessed a crisp population growing which resulted in the rapid enlargement of urban countries, taking to significant rise in the figure of consumers. This phenomenon is in itself mostly responsible for the addition in the sum of waste generated daily.

Waste is finally thrown into municipal waste aggregation centres where the direction and disposal is done. Yet, if done improperly, it can do serious impacts on wellness every bit good as jobs to the environment. For case, if non decently disposed of, waste could on the one manus spread infective and chronic diseases, and on the other manus could take to chemical toxic condition and radioactive jeopardies, that could, at times, be lifelessly.

Added to that, improperly managed waste can do H2O, Earth and air pollution, which finally affect people 's wellness and put on the line their lives.

So bearing in head the antecedently mentioned factors, authoritiess all over the universe have to plan proper and efficient methods of waste disposal that better guarantee the safety of its people and cut down the effects of waste jeopardies on persons and the environment wholly.

Chapter- 2

2.0. Definition of solid waste

Due to the momentous addition in waste that characterizes modern-day societies ; solid waste has become easy recognized than defined.

However, solid waste has been defined by the New York Department of Environmental preservation as any refuse, garbage or sludge and other cast-off stuffs including solid, liquid, semi-solid or contained gaseous stuffs, ensuing from industrial, commercial and agricultural operations and from community activities.

To get down with, specifying solid waste is of great importance to be able to separate and cover with different classs of waste successfully. Nevertheless, a careful and thorough cognition of the beginnings, types every bit good as the belongingss of solid waste is one of the basic demands needed for a proper and equal direction of solid waste.

2.1. Beginnings of solid waste

The beginnings of solid waste vary from residential, to commercial, institutional, building and destruction, municipal, agricultural, industrial and risky beginnings, depending on the constituents and types of waste produced.

2.1.1. Residential beginnings

The size of urban residential countries, made up of both individual and multifamily homes, low ; medium ; and high rise flats, have presents expanded in a manner that they now constitute a major cause of the coevals of big measures of solid waste. Besides, the changeless alteration in people 's life style, and nutrient wonts led to the rise of consumer societies which has finally contributed to the coevals of more solid waste.

2.1.2. Commercial

Commercial countries fundamentally constitute of assorted edifices that offer services and installations to the consumers. The latter include section shops, eating houses, markets, offices edifices, hotels, motels, print stores, service Stationss, car fix stores, etc. The figure of the above mentioned edifices is increasing twenty-four hours by twenty-four hours as the figure of people in demand of these installations has been increasing dramatically. Consequently, the sum of waste produced by these constitutions has besides been lifting. Waste is besides more varied as it includes organic or combustible solid waste ( e.g nutrient, paper, cardboad ) , inorganic or non-combustible solid waste ( e.g glass, Sn tins, aluminium ) and particular waste ( e.g electronics, bulky points, white goods ) .

2.1.3. Institutional

Institutional beginnings of solid waste are varied in footings of the constitutions involved in treating such type of waste and the type of waste produced. These include authorities centres, schools, prisons and infirmaries. Talking about infirmary waste, which constitutes of disposable instruments such as acerate leafs, panpipes, swabs, patchs etc, it is deserving adverting that this type of waste has an highly bad consequence on the environment. Acerate leaf to state, that it is besides extremely infective and can be a serious menace to human wellness. For this ground, it is strongly advised that medical wastes should be handled and processed individually from other waste.

2.1.4. Construction and Destruction

The addition in universe population has been accompanied with an increasing demand for residential and non-residential edifices, that is to state single or commercial edifices. For this ground, more immense edifices are being constructed, others are being knocked down or demolished and other 1s are being repaired or remodeled. Besides, there is the municipalities ' route fix and redevelopment work which leaves behind hemorrhoids of waste in the destruction sites. The measure of such waste is hard to gauge and is ever unpredictable.

2.1.5. Municipal services

Another of import beginning of solid waste is that which consequences from the operation and care of different municipal installations, including street cleansing, landscape gardening, catch basin cleansing, Parkss, beaches and other recreational countries.

Because it is by and large impossible to foretell some of the constituents of this waste and its beginnings, it is frequently referred to as waste from non-specific diffuse beginnings, which can be contrasted to the specific waste from the residential beginnings which is recurrent.

2.1.6. Agricultural

Waste that is generated in the agricultural field is in no manner less of import than the one which residential, commercial or institutional beginnings generate, although it is different in its type and constituents. The chief beginning of this type of residue is the inauspicious agricultural activities conducted in the field such as planting and harvest home of trees and harvests, animate being maintaining, the production of milk and the operation of feedlots.

The disposal of such type of waste has n't been the duty of most of the municipal waste direction bureaus. That is why the disposal of carnal manure has become a critical job for a big figure of states where agribusiness is a common activity.

2.1.7. Industrial waste

No uncertainty, the old ages that followed the industrial revolution have witnessed great technological development which proved to be critical for the states ' economic systems. Light and heavy fabrication industries are now being developed, chemical and power workss are being set and fiction of new stuffs has been an ongoing procedure. However, this technological promotion goes manus in manus with the addition in the waste stuffs generated from all sectors including meat processing and rendition, wool scouring, mush and paper devising, fish processing, tining and confectionery sectors... . Consequently, new and efficient ways of waste direction demand to be developed in order to run into the demands of the industrialised states.

2.1.8. Hazardous waste

Hazardous waste is any type of waste that constitutes an at hand menace to homo 's and animate being 's lives. Besides, it is besides considered a major menace to the environment including workss and other life animals. Hazardous waste may incorporate toxic substances that are either caustic, extremely inflammable, or explosive, and respond when exposed to certain things like gases.

This sort of waste is generated non merely in the industrial sector or in infirmaries but besides some family waste, like batteries, pigment Sns and old medical specialties can be categorized as risky. Unfortunately, some states do n't hold proper disposal installations for these risky wastes which, at times, can be fatal.

2.2. Types of solid waste

Solid waste could be divided into three chief types depending on the beginning of the waste generated. There is first the municipal waste, so the industrial and biomedical waste, and eventually the agricultural waste.

2.2.1. Municipal

It includes wastes generated from residential, commercial, institutional, construction/demolition, and municipal services. These could be nutrient wastes, paper, plastics, glass, aluminium and other stuffs, composition board, consumer electronics, family risky waste, wood, steel, concrete, particular wastes, rubbish and street sweepings, etc.

It is deserving observing that the municipality is in charge of the aggregation and disposal of such types of solid wastes.

2.2.2. Industrial and biomedical

These are classified under the same type of waste because they consist of elements that are extremely and potentially unsafe and risky. Though biomedical waste differs from the industrial waste as it originates from biological beginnings, yet both of them should be decently managed to protect the general populace, specifically workers who are on a regular basis exposed to such waste as an occupational jeopardy.

2.2.3. Agricultural

Spoiled nutrient wastes, carnal waste, rubbish and other agricultural wastes are types of solid wastes produced in the agricultural field. As I antecedently mentioned, the direction and disposal of such type of solid waste is, in most states, non the municipalities ' duty, which poses a serious job for them.

2.3. Properties of municipal solid waste

2.3.1. Physical belongingss

When we talk about the physical belongingss of municipal solid waste, we should needfully advert the specific weight, wet content, atom size and size distribution, field capacity and the compacted porousness of waste.

2.3.1.1. Specific weight

It is defined as ‘the weight of stuff per unit volume ' ( Integrated Solid Waste Management, George Tchobanoglous, Hilary Theisen and Samuel A. Vigil, 1993 ) . It is measured in ( lb/ydA? ) and is needed in order to measure the entire mass and volume of waste that must be managed. However, specific weights of solid waste vary unusually with the geographic location, season, and length of clip in storage. ( Table 1.1 )

2.3.1.2. Moisture content

Moisture content of solid waste means the per centum of the wet weight of the stuff. It is expressed as follows: M= ( w - vitamin D ) 100

Meter: wet content ( % ) tungsten: initial weight of sample, ( pound )

d- weight of sample after drying at 105A°c, ( pound )

2.3.1.3. Particle size and size distribution

It is an of import consideration in the recovery of stuffs ( Figure 1.1 ) . It may be defined by the followers: Scandium: ( fifty + tungsten )

Scandium: size of the constituent

cubic decimeter: length in millimeter

tungsten: breadth in millimeter

H: tallness in millimeter

2.2.1.4. Field capacity

It is the entire sum of wet that can be retained in waste, which, finally, determines the formation of leachate in landfills, that is to state H2O in surplus of the field capacity. It varies in conformity with the grade of force per unit area and the province of decomposition of the waste.

2.2.1.5. Permeability of compacted waste

It is used to mention to the hydraulic conduction of compacted or pressed wastes which governs the motion of liquids and gases in a landfill.

2.3.2. Chemical belongingss

The chemical composing of the constituents of municipal solid waste helps measure the processing and recovery of waste. For case, the possibility of burning or firing waste depends really much on the chemical composing of waste.

There are four chief belongingss that should be focused on if wastes are to be burned: proximate analysis, blending point of ash, ultimate analysis and the energy content of waste.

2.3.2.1. Proximate analysis

It consists of finding the wet loss from waste when heated, the extra loss of weight at 950A°c, the fixed C and ash weight of residue after burning.

2.3.2.2. Blending point of ash

It is needed to find the temperature at which the ash ensuing from the combustion of waste will organize a solid by merger.

2.3.2.3. Ultimate analysis

It involves finding the per centum of C ( C ) , H ( H ) , O ( O ) , N ( N ) , S ( S ) and ash in waste ( Table 1.2 ) .

Table 1.2: Typical informations on the ultimate analysis of the combustible constituents in the residential municipal solid waste

2.3.2.4. Energy content

It can be determined utilizing a full graduated table boiler as a calorimeter, a research lab bomb calorimeter and by computation if the elemental composing is known. However, it can be said that the informations on the energy content of the organic constituents of municipal solid waste are based chiefly on the consequences of bomb calorimeter trials due to the trouble of pull stringsing a all-out boiler.

2.3.3. Biological belongingss

About all the organic constituents in municipal solid waste can be converted to gases, which is the most of import biological feature. In add-on to this characteristic, there is the production of olfactory properties and the genteelness of flies.

2.3.3.1. Biodegradability of organic waste constituents

Volatile solids content, which is determined by ignition at 550A°c, is frequently used as a step of biodegradability of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste. ( Table 1.3 )

Table 1.3: Datas on the biodegradable fraction of selected organic waste constituents based on lignin content

2.3.3.2. Production of olfactory properties

Olfactory properties develop when solid wastes are stored for a long clip. The latter develop from the decomposition of the readily analyzable organic constituents. This belongings is by and large accompanied by alteration in the colour of the organic waste to black.

2.3.3.3. Breeding of flies

In warm clime fly genteelness should be an of import consideration. They can develop quickly in less than two hebdomads after the eggs are laid. For this ground the storage period of solid waste should be short particularly in hot conditions.

Eggsdevelop 8-12 hours

First phase of larval period 20 hours

Second phase of larval period 24 hours

Third phase of larval period 3 yearss

Pupal phase 4-5 yearss

Entire 9-11 yearss

2.4. Definition of solid waste direction

Solid waste direction is a system for managing all the refuse generated by people populating in urban and rural countries. It consists of the aggregation, transit, processing, recycling or disposal and monitoring of the waste stuffs produced by the assorted human activities. Waste direction is carried out in order to maintain metropoliss clean and to cut down the effects of waste on people 's wellness and the environment. But it is besides meant to retrieve resources from it.

2.5. Solid waste rhythm

There are 5 chief stairss in the procedure of waste direction viz. analysis, aggregation, transit, recovery and recycling or disposal. These are summarized in the undermentioned figure 1.2.

2.5.1. Solid waste direction rhythm

In order to develop an appropriate waste direction solution that meets the demands and demands of the dwellers of peculiar country, and the demands of worlds that keep altering over clip, it is decidedly required to analyze the waste to be managed. For case, the cognition of the volume or sum of waste produced helps make up one's mind on the equipment required for such volume of waste to be disposed, a suited service agenda every bit good as the staff needed for the work. Furthermore, the cognition of waste watercourses that are normally disposed of is needed in order to plan and transport out suited direction process. So it could be said that the direction of solid waste is an ongoing procedure that starts long clip before the waste is produced.

2.5.2 Collection

The 2nd measure in the waste direction rhythm is the aggregation of waste from bins which by and large differ in size and contents, and from disposal countries where wastes vary from family simple refuse to industrial Dumpsters which are filled by more complex wastes generated either by persons or companies. Waste at this degree could be separated or un-separated ( commingled ) .

2.5.3. Transportation system

It follows the aggregation measure and consists of both transporting the collected wastes to the resource recovery centre and droping the contents of the aggregation vehicles in the centre where the waste is supposed to be processed.

2.5.4. Recovery

Once unloaded in the processing installation, the waste is sorted into reclaimable and non-recyclable points, besides called general waste, as a readying for the following phase where the waste is really disposed of utilizing the needed method for each class ( reclaimable or non-recyclable stuffs ) .

2.5.5. Disposal and monitoring of solid waste

Equally shortly as the waste is sorted and classified into different classs, the reclaimable waste is carried to a recycling installation, where it is processed in order to be reused. Whereas the non-recyclable waste is either sent to a composting or inceneration centre or disposed of at landfill.

2.6. Solid waste treatment/management

2.6.1. Land make fulling

Land filling has ever been a common pattern in most states universe broad. It involves the monitoring of the incoming waste watercourse and burying it in big holes specifically designed for the intent. At this degree it should be acknowledged that a decently designed and well-managed land fill can be hygienic but besides a comparatively cheap method of disposal of waste stuffs. On the other manus, nevertheless, poorly-designed every bit good as poorly-managed landfills can make a figure of serious environmental effects that is why the procedure of land make fulling starts long clip before the dumping of waste in the landfills and does non stop at the degree of burying the waste. Municipalities and waste direction bureaus have to pay a great trade of attending to the closing of the land fill every bit good as its care after the closing.

For case, harmonizing to George Tchobanoglous, Hilary Theisen and Samuel A. Vigil a figure of elements have to be taken into consideration in order to guarantee that bing landfills do non impact people 's wellness and the environment negatively. To get down with, they believe that the ballad out and design of the landfill is of import, together with the operations and direction. The reactions happening in landfills, the direction of landfill gases and leachate should be taken into consideration. Harmonizing to them a typical layout of a landfill is presented in the figure1.3 taken from Integrated Solid Waste Management, Engineering Principles and Management Issues, 1993.

The volume and type of waste disposed of in a landfill during one operation, which is referred to as cell, varies from one land fill to another. For this ground, we can sort land fills under three chief classs. First, the land fills that are designed for commingled municipal solid waste ( excepting industrial waste ) . The 2nd class of land fills includes waste that is cut into strips or shredded in order to be compacted to a tighter surface, therefore increasing its denseness. The 3rd type includes land fills for single waste components known as monofills.

However, whatever waste is buried in land fills, a day-to-day screen consisting of dirt or other stuffs, such as compost, should be used so that it controls the blowing of the waste stuffs outside the land fill, the entry of rats and flies and besides the entry of H2O. These safeguards taken after the disposal of waste in a landfill aid guarantee that the latter does non impact public wellness and the environment.

2.6.1.1. Restrictions of land filling

Since the development of this method of waste disposal at that place have been three chief issues related to set down filling. The first issue relates to the uncontrolled release of landfill gases that can make countries off-site, dispersed annoying olfactory properties and do potentially unsafe jobs. The 2nd job is related to the consequence that the uncontrolled discharge of landfill gases could hold on the ambiance. Added to that, is the job of the uncontrolled release of leachate which could make the land or surface H2O and contaminate it, doing a figure of diseases to the persons. For these assorted grounds, one of the chief concerns of waste direction bureaus should be to extinguish or at least cut down the impacts associated with this waste disposal method in order to maximise its benefits.

2.6.2. Recycling

It is non a modern-day method as it started long clip back when resources were really scarce and people had fewer picks. However, with the industrial revolution recycling has taken a different and more complex form as the stuffs being processed presents differ from those of the yesteryear. This method consists of treating used stuffs into new merchandises in order to forestall the waste of some resources and cut down the negative effects other methods could hold.

2.6.2.1. Reclaimable stuffs

To get down with, as I antecedently mentioned, waste stuffs could be divided into two chief classs: reclaimable and non-recyclable waste. The reclaimable waste, which is our chief concern, includes stuffs such as glass, paper, metal, plastic, fabrics, aluminium, lumber, concrete blocks, batteries, electronics and biodegradable waste.

2.6.2.2. Benefits of recycling

To get down with, recycling has an economic benefit for persons every bit good as the community in general, though there has been some dissension about whether recycling is economically efficient or non. A survey conducted by the Technical University of Denmark found that in 83 % of instances, recycling is the most efficient method of waste disposal, but the sum of money that could be saved through recycling depends on the efficiency of the plan used to make it. It has been proved that recycling could be profitable if it replaces the traditional ways of waste disposal, if the landfill fees are high and of class depending on the sum of waste to be recycled.

Furthermore, it is believed that recycling saves energy. For case, the Energy Information Administration states that “a paper factory uses 40 per centum less energy to do paper from recycled paper than it does to do paper from fresh lumber” . It besides argues that recycling aluminium saves 95 % of the energy required to do the same sum of aluminium from abrasion.

Finally, recycling proved to hold enormous benefits on the environment. It reduces air pollution that could be caused by gases produced in incineration sites. Besides, it helps cut down the risky waste 's leaching from landfills. It besides controls the ingestion of natural resources which the universe hazards of running out within a figure of old ages. All I all recycling can be considered an efficient manner of prolonging the environment for the approaching coevalss.

2.6.3. Restrictions of recycling

Compared to other waste disposal methods, recycling could be extremely good. Yet like other methods it has its defects and restrictions excessively. For illustration, it has been proved that nowadays waste is being recycled for fiscal addition regardless of the risky effects it could hold both on workers ' wellness or the environment, taking the recycling industry set up in China as an illustration. Furthermore, the profitableness of recycling is questioned because even developed states like the United States of America have trouble in happening markets for recycled points doing of marketing a serious issue for them. Added to that, the cost of reclaimable stuffs can at times exceed the cost of the natural stuffs.

In add-on to the old statements, critics argue that in the procedure of recycling, it could take more energy to bring forth recycled merchandises than it does to dispose of them in traditional landfills or incineration sites.

2.6.3. Reduce and reuse

The tendency of waste coevals is increasing in most states in the universe due to the crisp rise in the universe population, accompanied by the enlargement of urban countries. However, in order to halt this tendency of increasing sum of waste produced by each individual we should command the coevals of waste in the first topographic point. Waste bar, besides called “source reduction” , means that mills should plan and industry stuffs that cut down the sum of rubbish created and single people should buy and utilize stuffs that could be reused. Therefore manufactures every bit good as persons contribute to the procedure of cut downing the waste produced, which finally hold and hopefully avoid the costs of recycling, composting land filling and burning.

Good illustrations of merchandises that could be reduced or reused are containers and packaging, newspapers, vesture and other goods like furniture, tyres, etc.

2.6.3.1. Benefits of decrease and reuse

Reducing waste saves the natural resources and recycling stuffs to fabricate them deceases the coevals of waste dramatically as finally less material will necessitate to be disposed of. Furthermore, forestalling waste means economic nest eggs for communities and persons excessively. For case, if mills industry merchandises with less packaging, they will purchase less natural stuff. This means the lessening in the fabrication costs and the addition in the net income. Individual people could besides derive if they buy merchandises in majority, with less or reclaimable packaging.

However, we should bear in head that reclaimable merchandises need to be more lasting, therefore necessitating more material. Besides, screening and fixing points for reuse takes clip and it could besides be money for concerns. Some points could besides be risky as they continue to be used.

2.6.4. Incineration

This means the disposal of waste by burning it or change overing it into heat, gas, steam and ash. It is seen as practical method of disposing of certain risky waste stuffs such as biological medical waste. It is besides deserving adverting that it is a common method in states where land is scarce like Japan.

2.6.4.1. Restrictions of incineration

Incineration is a controversial method because of the emanation of gaseous pollutants that accompany the procedure and which may hold serious environmental effects.

2.6.5. Composting

It consists of break uping organic waste, such as nutrient, with micro-organisms in order to bring forth consumer merchandise or compost that varies in footings of its physical and chemical features depending on the nature of the get downing stuff. Harmonizing to George Tchobanoglus, Hilary Theisen and Samuel A. Vigil the composting operations consist of pre-processing of municipal solid waste, decomposition of the organic fraction of the waste and readying and selling of the concluding compost merchandise after it has been cured and stabilized. This procedure is summarized in the undermentioned figure 1.4 taken from their book Integrated Solid Waste Management, Engineering Principles and Management Issues,1993.

This method allows the usage of the already available waste in a more productive manner and reduces the volume of wastes placed in landfills. However, there are issues associated with this method that should be analyzed and solved. These include the production of olfactory properties that accompany the procedure and the absence of fixed standards for suited or unvarying compost merchandise.

2.7. Solid waste direction in the Sultanate of Oman

The sultanate of Oman has undergone dramatic alterations since the 1970 's. Along with other states in the universe, it has witnessed an addition in the population characterized by the enlargement of the urban countries and the change in the life styles of its people. These alterations automatically affected the size, beginnings, and type of waste generated by single families or authorities establishments and industries. This means that the already available system of waste direction has become deficient to run into the demands of the lifting figure of people.

Mahad bin Eissa Shammas, Director of the board of directors of environment personal businesss in the governorate of Dhofar says in a study for a web diary that “The addition in the population denseness, as a consequence of the uninterrupted urban enlargement, together with the betterment of life criterions, have increased the sum of generated solid waste all over the sultanate. Assorted processs were taken to construct the basic installations for solid waste disposal, but those stairss could non fit the velocity of development the universe has witnessed in this field.” For this ground the authorities has put a batch of accent in the demand to better waste direction methods to run into the both the demands of people and the environmental demands of a underdeveloped state.

2.7.1. Solid waste garbage dumps

Burning waste is a common pattern in some locations in the sultanate, but throwing waste in garbage dumps is besides a widely used pattern. Mahad bin Eissa Shammas criticizes the available garbage dumps stating that healthful garbage dumps were introduced in the sultanate yet. Besides, there are no suited mechanisms to roll up and pack the waste in order to forestall internal burning. Furthermore, taking the location of the garbage dumps was non done on a scientific footing. That is why some garbage dumps are located on the same vale where otiose H2O is being drained, which makes the pollution of the land H2O an at hand job. Recycling on the other manus was introduced several old ages back, yet it has been limited to specific stuffs such as metals, fish and agricultural waste.

To sum up we can state that the disposal of solid waste in the sultanate was non good managed due to the deficiency of consciousness among people in charge of the waste direction.

However, a great trade of attending has late been paid to this job. So Torahs have been modernized and surveies have been conducted by the ministry of local municipalities and environment in cooperation with Muscat municipality in order to better waste direction methods.

2.7.2. Recycling procedure

Director Mahad bin Eissa Shammas, says that the authorities intends to switch to mechanical intervention workss to recycle the waste, and to do usage of private sector in recycling. He gives the illustrations of the successful undertakings of gum elastic pulverization and runing Fe produced from used auto tyres which were utile for the environment. Fecal matters of herds are now being collected and used to bring forth natural fertilisers. Fish oil and pulverization are being produced in particular mills and used as fresh fish and fertilisers. The leftovers of slaughter houses particularly the tegument is being used to fabricate leather.

A closer survey of the waste direction of Al Amerat Municipality as a theoretical account will be covered in chapter... ..

2.8. Waste direction in Palestine

Populating in a state that suffers from war, Palestinian people faced a batch of troubles in pull offing the solid waste produced by mostly populated countries, which otherwise and under ordinary fortunes, constitutes a serious job to a big figure of states in the universe.

Based on a study written by Salah EL Borno, Director of the Council for Solid waste direction, it could be said that the bad patterns with the absence of statute law and review mechanisms in many countries resulted in insufficient and inconsistent aggregation services. Waste was on occasion dumped in unfastened countries, farms and vales or in some non-hygienic topographic points, which represented a possible danger to the public wellness and the environment, particularly to the land H2O resources.

Cite this Page

Waste defined as unwanted matter. (2017, Jul 04). Retrieved from https://phdessay.com/waste-defined-as-unwanted-matter/

copy to clipboard