Carbon dioxide emissions essay

Carbon dioxide emanations from Annex I states have established since 1990 but are turning quickly in developing states ( non Annex I states ) at a rate of about 4 % per twelvemonth which is reflected in the universe emanations which are turning approximately 600 million dozenss of CO2 per twelvemonth.

Carbon dioxide emanations are the dominant constituent of nursery gas emanations, but represented in 2006 merely 69,6 % of the entire emanations. The staying 30.4 % are methane ( CH4 ) , azotic oxide ( N2O ) and fluorinated gases with high planetary warming possible ( GWP ) which are: SF6 ( sulphur hexafluoride ) , HFCs ( hydrofluorcarbons ) and PFCs ( perfluorcarbons ) . ( Figure 4 ) .

Normally one expresses GHG emanations in CO2 equivalent. Entire emanations in 2005 were about 45 Gtons of CO2.equivalent of which 30 Gtons of CO2.

Order custom essay Carbon dioxide emissions essay with free plagiarism report

450+ experts on 30 subjects Starting from 3 hours delivery

Get Essay Help

To cut down CO2 and other GHG emanations became therefore one of the most pressing undertakings we are confronting today. There are two attacks to manage this job:

1. utilize energy more expeditiously, accordingly breathing less CO2 and widening the life of fossil fuels militias.
2. increase the part of renewable energies in the universe energy matrix

National authoritiess every bit good as some sectors of the productive system ( industry, transit, residential and others ) can follow these solutions in differentiated grades.

• In industrialised states, which have already reached a high degree of energy ingestion `` per capita '' , energy efficiency is the `` low hanging fruit '' attack that can be more easy implemented. Renewable energies can besides play a important function.
• In developing states where energy ingestion `` per capita '' is low, and the demand for the growing for energies services is inevitable, it can be done integrating early, in the procedure of development, clean and efficient engineerings every bit good as renewable energies, following a different way than that done in the yesteryear by today 's industrialised states

We will discourse hereafter the potency of energy efficiency, renewable energies and emanations merchandising strategies in accomplishing the aims of cut downing nursery gas emanations.

RENEWABLE ENERGIES

Table I lists the renewable energy used in the universe at the terminal of 2008 by all types of renewable beginnings, every bit good their annual growing rates. Traditional biomass is left out of this tabular array because it is used chiefly in rural countries as cooking fuel or wood coal in ways that are often non renewable, taking to deforestation and dirt debasement

Renewables ( including big hydro ) represented, in 2008, about 5 % of the universe? s entire primary energy ingestion but are turning at a rate of 6.3 % per twelvemonth while entire primary energy supply is turning at a smaller rate of about 2 % per twelvemonth.

Taking into history the appropriate efficiency and capacity factors* the Numberss in Table I can be converted into the entire primary energy part from renewables ( Table II ) and Figure 6.

An extrapolation of the part of renewables up to 2030 on the footing of the rates of growing in the last 10 old ages is shown in Figure 7.

To give an thought of the attempt that would be needed to control CO2 emanations up to 2050 the IEA produced late two scenarios of what would be required in footings of renewables in the electricity sector. The consequences are shown in Table III.

In the IEA Scenarios atomic energy and coal and gas fired thermic power workss ( with C gaining control and storage CCS ) are included.

These Numberss are really big but give an thought of the attempt required to forestall a ruinous clime alteration.

The chief policy instruments used to speed up the debut of renewables in the energy system of a figure of states are `` feed in duties '' and `` renewable portfolio criterions '' ( RPS )

• `` Feed-in '' duties: this is a policy adopted by authoritiess to speed up the debut of renewable energy beginnings in their matrixes. Power companies are obliged to purchase renewable energy from independent manufacturers, at a fixed monetary value above the mean cost of production. These incremental costs of renewable energy over fossil fuels can be transferred to consumers. Germany has had striking success with feed-in duties over the last two decennaries, providing 15 % of its energy demands through renewable beginnings. The German attack involves guaranteed fixed payments for 20 old ages designed to present a net income of 7 to 9 per centum. The rates charged vary by energy beginning and are tied to the cost of production. The rates paid for new contracts decline yearly, coercing the green energy sector to introduce.
• Renewable Portfolio Standards: such attack topographic points an duty on electricity supply companies to bring forth a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy beginnings ( typically 10-20 % ) . Certified renewable energy generators earn certifications for every unit of electricity they produce and can sell these along with their electricity to provide companies. RPS-type mechanisms have been adopted in the UK, Italy and Belgium, every bit good as in 27 States in the US and the District of Columbia. Regulations vary from province to province, and there is no federal policy. Four of the 27 provinces have voluntary instead than compulsory ends. Together these 27 provinces account for more than 42 per centum of the electricity gross revenues in the state.

Renewable energies are being introduced in a important manner in many states peculiarly in Europe in the signifier of distributed generation* ( ) ( largely renewable ) which seems to be the attack to be used in big graduated table in the hereafter. ( Figure 8 )

ENERGY EFFICIENCY

The sum of energy required to supply the energy services needed depends on the efficiency with which the energy is produced, delivered and used.

Additions in energy efficiency are normally measured by indexs, one of which is called energy strength and defined as the energy necessary ( E ) per unit of gross domestic merchandise ( GDP ) .

I = E/GDP

Decrease in the energy strength over clip indicate that the same sum of GDP is obtained with a smaller energy input as shown in Figure 9.

In footings of CO2 emanations for the OECD states means a decrease of emanations of approximately 350 million dozenss of CO2 per twelvemonth.

The grounds for such diminution are a combination of the undermentioned factors.

• structural alterations in industrialised and passage states which can come from increased recycling and permutation of energy-intensive stuffs improved material efficiency and intensified usage of lasting and investing goods,
• displacements to services and less energy-intensive industrial production, and
• impregnation effects in the residential and transit sectors ( i.e. , a bound to the figure of autos, iceboxs, telecasting sets, etc. , that a society can absorb ) .

Since more than 80 % of the energy used in the universe today comes from fossil fuels the decrease in energy strength is reflected in a decrease in C strength ( I=CO2/GDP ) which is shown in Figure 11.

As can be look there is a steady diminution in the C strength in OECD states. In non-OECD states there was besides a diminution but it has stabilized after the twelvemonth 2000.

Over the following 20 old ages the sum of primary energy required for a given degree of energy services could be cost-effectively reduced by 25 to 35 per centum in industrialised states. Decreases of more than 40 per centum are cost-effectively accomplishable in transitional economic systems within the following two decennaries. In most developing states? which tend to hold high economic growing and old capital and vehicle stocks? the cost-efficient betterment potency ranges from 30 to more than 45 per centum, comparative to energy efficiencies achieved with bing capital stock.

The combined consequence of structural alterations and efficiency betterments could speed up the one-year diminution in energy strength to possibly 2.5 per centum. How much of this potency will be realized depends on the effectivity of policy models and steps, alterations in attitude and behaviour, every bit good as the degree of entrepreneurial activity in energy preservation and material efficiency.

Standards ( e.g. , constructing codifications ; intelligent consumers, contrivers, and determination shapers ; motivated operators ; market-based inducements such as certification markets ; and an equal payments system ( ) for energy ) are cardinal to the successful execution of energy efficiency betterments.

EMISSIONS Trading

In add-on to national attempts to control GHG emanations through increased energy efficiency steps and the usage of renewable energy beginning trading emanations is a scheme used to command pollution by supplying incentive s for accomplishing decreases in the emanation of pollutants. Usually it is called a? cap and trade? system and the manner is plants is the followers:

A cardinal authorization ( normally a authorities or international organic structure ) sets a bound or cap on the sum of a pollutant that can be emitted. Companies or other groups are issued emanation licenses and are required to keep an tantamount figure of allowances ( or credits ) which represent the right to breathe a specific sum. The entire sum of allowances and credits can non transcend the cap, restricting entire emanations to that degree. Companies that need to increase their emanation allowances must purchase credits from those who pollute less. The transportation of allowances is referred to as a trade. In consequence, the purchaser is paying a charge for fouling, while the marketer is being rewarded for holding reduced emanations. An early illustration of an emanation trading system has been the SO2 trading system under the model of the Acid Rain Program of the 1990 Clean Air Act in the U.S. Under the plan, which is basically a cap-and-trade emanations trading system, SO2 emanations were reduced by 50 per centum from 1980 degrees by 2007. Some experts argue that the `` cap and trade '' system of SO2 emanations decrease has reduced the cost of commanding acerb rain by every bit much as 80 per centum versus source-by-source decrease? . ( )

At the international degree the Kyoto Protocol ( KP ) adopted in 1997 and which came into force in 2005, binds most developed states to a cap and trade system for the six major nursery gases. In malice of being a signer of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , the United States is the lone industrialised state ( i.e. , under the KP Annex I ) which has non ratified and hence is non bound by it. Emission quotas were agreed by each take parting state, with the purpose of cut downing their overall emanations by 5.2 % of their 1990 degrees by the terminal of 2012. Under the Treaty, for the 5-year conformity period from 2008 until 2012, states that emit less than their quota will be able to sell emanation credits to states that exceed their quota through usage of the undermentioned flexibleness mechanisms:

• Joint Implementation undertakings ( JI )
• Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM )
• International Emissions Trading ( IET ) .

The 2nd commitment period of the KP, together with a long-run concerted action under the UNFCCC, will be discussed by states at the terminal of 2009.

THE EUROPEAN UNION EMISSIONS Trading SCHEME ( EU ETS )

The European Union Emission Trading System ( EU ETS ) is the largest multi-national, emanations merchandising strategy in the universe, and is a major pillar of EU clime policy.

Under the EU ETS, the authoritiess of the EU Member States agree on national emanation caps which have to be approved by the EU committee, allocate allowances to their industrial operators, path and formalize the existent emanations in conformity against the relevant assigned sum.

In the first stage ( 2005-2007 ) , the EU ETS includes some 12,000 installings, stand foring about 40 % of EU CO2 emanations, ( 2.4 billion dozenss of CO2 equivalent ) covering energy activities ( burning installings with a rated thermic input transcending 20 MW, mineral oil refineries, coke ovens, production and processing of ferric metals, mineral industry ( cement cinder, glass and ceramic bricks ) and mush, paper and board activities.

The strategy, in which all 15 member provinces that were so members of the European Union participated, nominally commenced operation on January 1st, 2005, although national registers were unable to settle minutess for the first few months.

The first trading period of the EU ETS ran for three old ages, from January 1st, 2005 until the terminal of 2007. With its expiration foremost phase allowances became invalid. The end of the test period was chiefly to derive experience with cardinal elements of the trading system in order to hold a to the full operational system for 2008-2012 when conformity with binding decreases would be required under the Kyoto Protocol. ( Table IV )

The monetary value of allowances increased more or less steadily to its peak degree in April 2006 of approximately? 30 per metric ton CO2, but fell in May 2006 to under? 10/ton on intelligence that some states were likely to give their industries such generous emanation caps that there was no demand for them to cut down emanations. When the publication of 2005 verified emanations informations in May 2006 highlighted this over-allocation, the market reacted by well take downing the monetary value of allowances. Monetary values dropped sharply to? 1.2 a metric ton in March 2007, worsening to? 0.10 in September 2007, because allowances could non be carried over or? banked? and used in the following trading period.

Although the first stage ended disastrously, because the allowances could non be banked to the following stage, it did non impact on the monetary values for contracts for 2008, the first twelvemonth of the 2nd stage. Market participants knew already in 2007 that stage II would be more rigorous in relation to the cap and less indulgent in relation to allowances, which explains the high monetary values for 2008 allowances.

The first EU ETS Trading Period expired in December 2007. Since January 2008, the 2nd Trading Period is under manner which will last until December 2012. Presently, the installings get the allowances for free from the EU member provinces ' authoritiess. Besides having this initial allotment on a plant-by-plant footing, an operator may buy EU allowances from others ( installings, bargainers, the authorities ) .

In January 2008, the European Commission proposed a figure of alterations to the strategy, including centralized allotment ( no more national allotment programs ) by an EU authorization, a bend to auctioning a greater portion ( 60+ % ) of licenses instead than apportioning freely, and inclusion of other nursery gases, such as azotic oxide and per-fluorocarbons. These alterations are still in a bill of exchange phase ; the mentioned amendments are merely likely to go effectual from January 2013 onwards, i.e. in the 3rd Trading Period under the EU ETS. Besides, the proposed caps for the 3rd Trading Period foresee an overall decrease of nursery gases for the sector of 21 % in 2020 compared to 2005 emanations. The EU ETS has late been extended to the air hose industry every bit good, but these alterations will non take topographic point until 2012.

In add-on, the 3rd trading period will be both more economically efficient and environmentally effectual. It will be more efficient because trading periods will be longer ( 8 old ages alternatively of 5 old ages ) , and a significant addition in the sum of auctioning ( from less than 4 % in stage 2 to more than half in stage 3 ) . The environmental effectivity will be guaranteed by a robust and yearly worsening emanations cap ( 21 % decrease in 2020 compared to 2005 ) and a centralised allotment procedure within the European Commission.

A robust `` secondary '' market for C certifications exists through which investors bank on the future value of the EU ETS certifications altering many times. However the ETS doesn? T include conveyance, therefore this action is limited to industrial procedure and energy sector.

Joint IMPLEMENTATION ( JI )

Joint execution is one of flexibleness mechanisms set Forth in the Kyoto Protocol to assist states with binding nursery gas emanations marks ( alleged Annex I states ) meet their duties. In this mechanism any Annex I states can put in emanation decrease undertakings ( referred to as `` Joint Implementation Projects '' ) in any other Annex I state as an option to cut downing emanations domestically. In this manner states can take down the costs of following with their Kyoto marks by puting in nursery gas decreases in an Annex I state where decreases are cheaper, and so using the recognition for those decreases towards their committedness end.

The procedure of having recognition for JI undertakings is slightly complex. Emission decreases are awarded credits called Emission Reduction Units ( ERUs ) , where one ERU represents an emanation decrease bing one metric ton of CO2 equivalent. The ERUs come from the host state 's pool of assigned emanations credits, known as Assigned Amount Units, or AAUs ( ) .

After a long preparatory procedure JI undertakings began to take form. As of June 2009, 207 undertakings have been submitted. If all implemented they will take to emanations decrease of 338,048 million times CO2 equivalent in the period 2008-2012. The great bulk of the undertakings are in the Russian Federation and Eastern European states. The figure of JI undertakings by type is given in Figure 14.

So far the lone certifications issued ( ERUs ) emanations decrease units are 651 thousand CO2 equivalent for coal bed/mine methane.

CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM ( CDM )

The Clean Development Mechanism is an agreement under the Kyoto Protocol leting industrialised states with a nursery gas decrease committedness ( called Annex B states ) to put in undertakings that cut down emanations in developing states as an option to more expensive emanation decreases in their ain states. A important characteristic of an sanctioned CDM C undertaking is that it has established that the planned decreases would non happen without the extra inducement provided by emanation decreases credits, a construct known as `` additionality '' .

The CDM allows cyberspace planetary nursery gas emanations to be reduced at a much lower planetary cost by financing emanations decrease undertakings in developing states where costs are lower than in industrialised states.

The CDM is supervised by the CDM Executive Board ( CDM EB ) and is under the counsel of the Conference of the Parties ( COP/MOP ) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) .

By June 1 2009, 4,417 undertakings have been submitted which if all implemented correspond to 2,931,813 million dozenss of CO2 equivalent. It represents approximately 1 % of the entire necessary attempt to control GHG emanations until 2050.

Approximately 75 % of the CDM undertakings are in China.

In contrast to emanations merchandising strategies which are actively traded in the stock market JI and CDM are project-based dealing.

THE STIMULUS PACKAGE

A important sum of the stimulus bundle adopted by a figure of authoritiess to confront the fiscal crisis of 2007/2008 is made of investings in so called? green? activities. They amount to 6 % of the entire recovery bundles announced by authoritiess ( US $ 184.9billion dollars ) . ( Figure 17 )

China and the US remain the leaders, in nominal footings, of the green stimulation activities, allowing US $ 68.7 billion and US $ 66.6 billion severally.

The sector break-down shows that energy efficiency ( Figure 18 ) remains at the bosom of the low-carbon financial stimulations. Accounting for every bit much as 36 % of the entire US $ 184.9 billion, the sector will have a encouragement of some US $ 65.7 billion globally, chiefly via edifice efficiency undertakings. In add-on to that, US $ 7.9 billion has been announced for research and development in energy efficiency. The 2nd major victor is electricity grid substructure. More than US $ 48.7 billion has been earmarked for its development and ascent, accounting for some 26 % of the entire financess.

The Department of Energy has already disbursed US $ 41.9 million in grants for fuel cell energy undertakings.

Furthermore, US $ 101.5 million has been directed to weave energy research and elaborate programs have been disclosed on US $ 2.4 billion to be spent on C gaining control and storage and US $ 4 billion for grid ascents. Detailss of about US $ 1.3 billion, out of US $ 2 billion to back up energy scientific discipline research, have besides been confirmed and there are now merely some US $ 725 million staying to be allocated.

Don't let plagiarism ruin your grade

Run a free check or have your essay done for you

Check my essay Hire Writer