General Anthropology: A Study of Humanity

4 Sub-Fields:

1. Socio-Cultural – focuses on living human cultures, global patterns of belief and behavior found in modern and historical cultures, participant observation a. Influenced behaviors, customs, traditions, beliefs b. Non-biological of adaptation to the human environment, social and natural

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2. Anthropological Linguistics – description and study of structure and history of language and relationship to culture, study of human speech and language
3.  Archaeology – study of material culture of past human life and activities c. Cultural history/ chronology d. Life ways e. Processes
4. Study of humans as animals – evolutionary theory and genetics, physical and biological Anthropology is holistic * Culture > Integrated system * Biological, Ecological, Social * Bio-Cultural Approach > feedback loop between culture and environment

NON-ETHNOCENTRIC (more than one way to view the world) Humans are distinct: Animals, Mammals, Primates, Problem solvers, Bipedal locomotion (walk on 2 feet), Opposable thumbs, stereoscopic vision, large brain, reproduction (no estrus cycle), and culture Chapter 1 Vocabulary

Hominins – term for members of the evolutionary group including humans and extinct bipedal relatives Bipedal – walks on two feet / legs Primates – members of the order of mammals Bio-cultural evolution – evolution of human biology and culture, both further influences one another, leads to understanding human evolution Ethnographies – detailed descriptive studies of human societies Paleoanthropology – study of disease and injury in human skeletal Anthropometry – measurement of human body parts DNA – double-stranded molecule that contains genetic code Osteology – study of skeletal material

Primatology – study of biology and behavior of nonhuman primates Continuum – set of relationships in which all components fall along a single integrated spectrum (humans are a product of the same force that produced all life on earth) Empirical – relying on experiment or observation Cultural Relativism - cultures have merits or worth within their own historical and environmental contexts Important Names Alfred Wallace f. On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type (1858) g. The best adapted survived; the less well adapted perished Charles Darwin a.

On the Origin of Species. (1859) b. Concept of Natural Selection c. Evolution d. isHisTheory * All species > offspring ? food supply * Variation, some more favorable * Struggle for existence * Variations > next generation * Successful variations > diff. results in next species Charles Lyell a. Uniformitarianism Cuvier a. Catastrophism Gregor Mendel a. Worked in the monastery’s garden * Experimented with fertilization of flowers (new color variations) * Fascinated by “the regularity with which the same hybrid forms always reappeared when fertilization took place between the same species. b. Mendel’s experiments * Determine the number of different forms of hybrids * Arrange them according to generations * Attempt to evaluate the statistical relationships c. Common Garden Pea * Seed shape, seed color, flower color, pod shape, pod color, flower position, stem height d. Law of Segregation * Discrete units of genetic information are passed from one generation to the next e. Different physical expressions because some traits were dominant over others * Dominant Trait i. Visible or Measurable ii.

Prevents the appearance of the recessive trait iii. Round is dominant * Recessive Trait iv. Not visible or measurable when paired with the dominant allele v. Only visible or measurable when dominant allele is absent Gould and Eldredge a. Punctuated equilibrium: the tempo and mode of evolution reconsidered Lamarck a. Theory of Acquired Characteristics Linnaeus a. Adherent to great chain of being b. Developed system of classification * Binomial nomenclature Thomas Malthus a. Population growths unrestrained by natural causes will double every 25 years. . BUT, capacity for food production increase only in a straight arithmetic progression. c. The impulse to multiply is counteracted by THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE d. THE INFINITE FERTILITY OF MANKIND VERSUS THE LIMITED SIZE & RESOURCES OF THE EARTH. e. The Dilemma of Population Growth i. Preventative checks (foresight) vs. positive check (infant mortality, famine) Chapter 2 Vocabulary Fixity of Species – the notion that species, once created, can never change, opposes biological evolution Reproductively isolated – groups or organisms, ainly because of genetic differences, are prevented from mating and reproducing offspring with members of other groups Reproductive success – the number of offspring an individual produces and rears to reproductive age; and individuals genetic contribution to the next generation Selective pressures – forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals Genome – the entire genetic makeup of an individual or species Fertility – the ability to conceive and produce healthy offspring Chapter 3 Vocabulary

Gametes – reproductive cells (eggs and sperm in animals) Somatic cell – all cells in body except those involved in reproduction Zygote – cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm cell, contains chromosomes Nucleotides – basic units of DNA molecule

Enzymes – specialized proteins that initiate and direct chemical reactions in the body Hemoglobin – protein molecule that occurs in red blood cells and binds to oxygen molecules Mitosis – simple cell division; produces two identical daughter cells Meiosis – cell division in specialized cells in ovaries and testes Recombination – the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes; cross-over Genome – entire genetic makeup of an individual or species Evolutionary Theory Catastrophism * Cuvier * New species could not evolve from old Time-to-time catastrophes occur, destroys all living things in certain areas * New forms populate area by migration * Incoming migrants had more modern appearance due to the result of more recent creation events Uniformitarianism * Lyell * Processes at work today = active throughout history of earth = those occurred in past * James Hutton = ancient, on-going, continuous, without end * Geological change ( earthquakes, volcanoes, etc) were consistent, uniformed, constant through time Forces of Evolution

Evolution – (Darwin) the gradual unfolding of new varieties of life from previous forms * Modern Synthesis ( 2 stage process) 1. The production and redistribution of variation (inherited differences among organisms) * Mutation (in sex cells): change in DNA, one allele changes to another, also point mutations * Mutagens are agents of mutations: chemicals, radiation, extreme temperatures * Passes to offspring in gametes not somatic cells Migration (gene flow): exchange of genes between population, migration * Genetic drift (random force): function of population size * Rare allele may not be passed to offspring due to small population, allele may disappear * Founder Effect: allele frequencies alter in small pop. that are taken from larger pop. or parents pop. , they colonize a new location 2. Natural selection (individual and population) affects their ability to successfully reproduce * 4 net reproductive success * Ex: peppered moth Great Chain of Being * Infinite series of forms: simple – complex The universe was “full” * Progressive grading: inferior – superior * Every creature’s position was “fixed” * No new species * No extinctions Species * Proposed in the 17th century * Groups of plants and animals could be differentiated by other groups by their ability to mate with one another and produce fertile offspring (John Ray) * Frequently share similarities with other species > second level of classification > genus * Linnaeus > binomial nomenclature > genus and species names are used to refer to species * Ex: homo sapiens = human beings * Taxonomy: system of classification Genus and species * Class and order Theory of Acquired Characteristics * Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) * There is a dynamic interaction between organic forms and the environment. * Characteristics that an individual might acquire in a lifetime would be passed on to succeeding generations. Principles of Inheritance Principle of Independent Assortment * The distribution of one pair of alleles into gametes does not influence the distribution of another pair * The genes controlling different traits are inherited independently of one another Principle of Segregation Genes (alleles) occur in pairs because chromosomes occur in pairs * During gamete formation, the members of each pair of alleles separate, so that each gamete contains one member of each pair Genes and Chromosomes Allele and Gene * Alternate forms of a gene * Sequence of DNA Chromosome * Discrete structures composed of DNA and protein found only in nuclei of cells Co-dominance * The expression of two alleles in heterozygote, the products of both are present * Ex: blood type AB Cross-over the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes; recombination * when paired chromosomes exchange DNA, genes sometimes find themselves in different genetic environments Dihybrid crosses * These are ALWAYS the ratios of a cross between two HETEROZYGOUS individuals, when two variables are involved. * RrYy X RrYy DNA, base pair * DNA molecule has 4 chemical bases 1. Adenine = A 2. Thymine = T 3. Cytosine = C 4. Guanine = G * Except for protein synthesis * Adenine and Thymine are base pairs = AT * Cytosine and Guanine are base pairs = CG In protein synthesis RNA subs Uracil = U for Thymine * AT > AU Dominant = shows, Recessive = does not show Down’s syndrome * Trisomy 21, abnormal number of autosomes compatible with life beyond the first few years after birth * Caused by the presence of 3 copies of chromosome 21 * Mental impairment, heart defects, respiratory infections, leukemia Hemophilia * bleeding disorder in which the blood doesn't clot normally * Primarily only males * Recessive allele for hemophilia on the female “X” chromosome. * Male hemophiliacs receive the deleterious gene from their mothers. There is an equal chance that a female will have the recessive allele on one of her two “X” chromosomes. * H = Normal clotting h = Hemophilia * HH Female = Normal * Hh Female = Normal “Carrier” * HY Male = Normal * hY Male = Hemophilia Genotype = genetic make-up of a trait Phenotype = physical expression of the genotype Homologous Chromosomes = paired chromosomes, paired during meiosis and participate in cross-over, same loci Homozygous = same alleles Heterozygous = different alleles Pleiotropic Traits * multiple effects at different times in the life p The phenomenon of one gene being responsible for or affecting more than one phenotypic characteristic * A synergetic affect on more than one part of the body * Ex: sickle cell, albinism Polygenic Traits * Traits that are influenced by genes at 2 or more loci * Ex: skin color, eye color, hair color * Many are influenced by environmental factors * Ex: nutrition, sunlight exposure Polymorphism * Loci with more than one allele * Above 1% in the population * Traits that differ in expression between individuals and populations * Ex: ABO blood, unbalanced Protein and Amino Acids 3-D molecules that serve a wide variety of functions through their ability to bind to other molecules * Small molecules that are the components of proteins Sex Linkage * 23rd Chromosomal Pair * Females: XX * Males: XY * Homogametic versus Heterogametic * Sex linked traits * Ex: colorblindness, hemophilia * Male hemophiliacs receive gene from their mothers Sickle Cell Trait/Anemia ; Malaria * Hemoglobin (146 Amino Acids) * Sickle cell caused by switching one base pair (point mutation) * Heterozygous carriers are much more resistant to malarial infection * Malaria * People of all ages susceptible Four types of human malaria caused by four species of parasites (Plasmodium) * Transmitted by mosquitoes Blood and Blood Types * At least 29 human blood group systems * Antigen = large molecules found on the surface of cells , several different loci govern various antigens on red and white blood cells * Antibody – each type is unique and defends the body against one specific type of antigen * Three important blood groups: * ABO System * Four blood types: * A (dominant) antigen * B (dominant) antigen * AB(co-dominance)antigen, universal recipient * O(recessive ii)none, universal donor Alleles are designated as follows: * A = IA B = IB O= i * 4 phenotypes 6 genotypes * Rh Factor * Another group of antigens found on red blood cells. * Rh Positive = Rh+ (Dominant allele) * Rh Negative = Rh- (Recessive allele) * Rh- blood does not agglutinate with the antiserum * Greatest problem is not with transfusions, but between mother and fetus. * A problem ONLY if the mother is Rh- and the father is Rh+ * A serum containing Anti-Rh+ may be administered to Rh- mothers after their first birth. (RhoGam) * MN Group * Three genotypes (Chromosome 4) * MM MN * NN * Appear to be no incompatibilities that cause complications during transfusions or between mother and fetus. * Co-dominant group * 3 genotypes produce 3 phenotypes Population Genetics Allopatric speciation * Speciation by geographic isolation * Gradual changes can lead to sufficient genetic differences Ecological Niche * The position of a species within its physical and biological environments * Components: diet, terrain, type of predators, vegetation, relationships with other species, and activity patterns * Niches are unique to each species * Together makes up an ecosystem

Fitness = measure of the relative reproductive success of individuals, genetic contribution to the next generation Gene Flow = exchange of genes between populations Gene Pool = all of the genes shared by the reproductive members of a population Hardy-Weinberg (Equilibrium Principle) * No genetic drift, mutation, migration, selection * Random mating * Math relationship of allele and genotype * A = p a = q; p + q = 1 or 100% [ alleles in gene pool] * In the absence of evolutionary processes, gene frequencies (allele frequencies) will remain constant from generation to generation * P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 [ proportion of genotypes] AA + Aa + aa = 1 Macroevolution = changes produced only after many generations, such as the new appearance of a new species Microevolution = small changes occurring within species, such as changes in allele frequencies Phyletic Gradualism * Slow changes result in new species * The complete fossil record of an evolving group would display a series of forms with finely graded transitional differences between each ancestor and its descendant * Many “missing links” would be present Punctuated Equilibrium Uneven, nongradual process of long stasis and quick spurts * The concept that evolutionary change proceeds through long periods of stasis punctuated by rapid periods of change * There are no “missing links”, gaps are real Random Mating = no bias in who mates; any male is assumed to have an equal chance of mating with any female Selective Pressure = forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals Selective Agent = the agent or cause of the selective pressure event?

Sympatric = process through which new species evolve from a single ancestral species while inhabiting the same geographic region Unit of Evolution * Population * Evolves Unit of Selection * Individual * Does not evolve Human Variation Race * breeds of domestic animals, their group measurement, or their descent from a common ancestor * Has no useful biological meaning because variations in human appearance occur on a continuum. Acclimatization * Physiological responses to changes in the environment that occur during an individual’s lifetime * Maybe be temporary or permanent Its capacity may typify an entire species or population * Under genetic influence, it’s subject to evolutionary factors such as natural selection and genetic drift Allen’s Rule * Concerns shape of the body * Colder climates = shorter appendages, adaptive for preventing heat loss * Vice versa Bergmann’s Rule * Concerns the relationship of body mass or volume to surface area * In mammals, body size is greater in population that lives in colder climates * Vice versa Kuru * Neurodegenerative disorder * Tremor and loss of balance First appeared in New Guinea * Primarily affected adult women and children * Three main stages of progression: * Ambulant – unsteady, tremor, speech slur * Sedentary – muscle jerks, laughter outbursts, depression and mental slowing * Terminal - Urinary and fecal incontinence, difficulty swallowing, deep ulcerations appear * Caused by cerebellar dysfunction * It is a prion disease = infectious particles composed of a protein that causes neurodegenerative disorders Kwashiorkor * Severe protein deficiency * Tissue swelling * Anemia * Loss of hair Apathy Lactase Persistence * The continued production of lactase, the enzyme that breaks down lactose ( sugar milk) * Allows some adults to digest fresh milk products Marasmus * Caused by the combine effects of protein and calorie deficiency * PEM (protein-energy malnutrition) Osteology Bone Markers * Heterogeneous * Dynamic Organ * Constantly remodeled and replaced * Extremely responsive to stress * Bone Mass IS NOT constant Characteristics of Bone * Compact bone: * Most dense; * Least vascularized; * Often covers cancellous bone * Cancellous bone: Heavily vascularized with large sacs (marrow spaces that produce red blood cells) and pores * Subchondrial bone: * A type of compact bone located at the joints and covered with cartilage in life * Generally less dense and more vascularized than regular compact bone Bone Growth * The primary centers of growth are the DIAPHYSES; Responsible for most of the growth of long bones * Secondary centers are the EPIPHYSES and are separated from the diaphyses by the… * METAPHYSES, which are thin layers of cartilage being overtaken by bone formation. This is the actual site of bone growth.

Harris Line = growth interruption, nutritional deficits Human Bone Growth * Human Dental Formula = 2. 1. 2. 3 * Determine sex * Determine age * Physical characteristics of populations; * Population structure and demography; * State of health, longevity, disease during life. * Cause of death. How is this different than “Manner of Death”? * Evidence of trauma. * Nutritional history (bone chemistry; dental wear). * Relatedness of populations (DNA and genetic bone characteristics) * Social Complexity (cultural modifications, differential nutritional status, health, grave goods). Belief systems (treatment of dead). Chapter 4 Vocabulary Hybrids – offspring of parents who differ from each other, heterozygotes Locus – the position on a chromosome where a given gene occurs Mendelian traits – characteristics that are influenced by alleles at only one genetic locus Chapter 5 Vocabulary Chordata – phylum of the animal kingdom that includes vertebrates Vertebrates – animals with segmented, bony spinal columns Homologies – similarities between organisms based on descent from a common ancestor Analogies – “ ….. based strictly on common function Homoplasy – same evolutionary development in different groups of organisms Clade – group of organisms sharing a common ancestor Speciation – process by which a new species evolves from an earlier species; most basic process in macroevolution Genus – group of closely related species Chapter 12 Vocabulary Homeostasis- condition of balance or stability Population genetics – the study of the frequency of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes in populations from a micro evolutionary perspective

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